American Indian Shell Gorget

ARTIFACTS AND OBJECTS OF THE WORLD

Name: American Indian shell Gorget

Origin: Northern California, (United States)

Museum: California State Indian Museum, Sacramento, California (United States)

Material: abalone shell

Dimensions: 10.795 x 7.62 cm. (4 1/4 x 3 in.)

Reference code:  BWH-18-AT-1-SL

Age: Pre-contact

Collector: Benjamin Welcome Hathaway, 1881-1959

Digital collection: Press here 

Comments:

A shell gorget is a carved pendant typically worn around the neck and frequently engraved, sometimes highlighted with pigments, and usually pierced. Many gorgets from Northern California tribes were made from the Haliotis or abalone shell, a material used to make many types of beads for jewelry and decoration for women's ceremonial skirts. Traditionally, both men and women wore these types of gorgets for personal adornment. Current regalia makers still use abalone shell as a decorative element.

Shell gorgets were most common in Eastern Woodlands of the United States, during in the Hopewell tradition (200 BCE–500 CE) and Mississippian cultural period (ca. 800–1500 CE); however, tribes from other regions and time periods, also carved shell gorgets. The earliest shell gorgets date back to 3000 years BP. They are believed to have been insignia of status or rank, either civic, military, or religious, or amulets of protective medicine. Due to the placement of the holes in the gorgets, they are also thought to be spinners that could produce whistling sounds.

Lightning whelk (Busycon contrarium) is the most common shell used for gorgets. Other shells, such as the true conch or Strombus, as well as freshwater mussels, are also carved into gorgets. Today, due to environmental causes, harvested lightning whelks are significantly smaller than in pre-contact times. These earlier shells typically ranged from 6 to 12 inches in length.

Harvested off the coasts of Florida and the Gulf of Mexico, the shells were traded through the Eastern Woodlands. This native trade continued into the 16th century.

Gorgets are carved from the penultimate whorl of the shell. A blank is cut or broken out, then ground smooth. Holes for suspension and decoration are drilled, sometimes with a bow drills or chert drills. The gorget forms a concave shape and, when engraved, the interior is polished and decorated.

While most gorgets are circular, some are shaped as rectangles with rounded corners, maskettes, or other novel shapes. An extremely elaborate pendant from Spiro Mounds is shaped as two hands connected by a common beaded bracelet.

Iconography on the shell gorgets comes from the Southeastern Ceremonial Complex (SECC). Extremely common designs include the triskele, coiled rattlesnake, water spider, chunkey player, and birdman, sometimes called a Falcon Impersonator.

There are over 30 pre-contact examples of the Cox Mound gorget style, found in Tennessee and northern Alabama and dating from 1250-1450 CE. The Cox Mound gorget style features four woodpecker heads facing counter-clockwise, a four-lopped square motif, and a cross within a rayed circle. The four-looped square, or guilloche, is considered by some to be a "whirling sun" motif, or a priestly or chiefly litter; by some, the earth held up by cords to the Sky Vault at the four cardinal points; and by others, the path of life with four stages of maturity. Woodpeckers are considered warrior birds among Cherokee and medicine birds that can extract illnesses among Muscogee Creeks. The birds are also sometimes interpreted as the four winds. The rayed circle or sun is interpreted literally, a deity or ancestors, council, and/or sacred fire. The entire design could also illustrate the Yuchi myth of the winds.

A gorget from the Castalian Springs Mound Site in Tennessee features a man holding a mace and severed head. This has been interpreted by some anthropologists as a "flying shaman."

Some agreement can be found in interpreting the cross-in-circle design, which references the sun and the ceremonial fire, fed by four logs aligned to cardinal directions. Another design widely agreed upon is the water spider with a cross-in-circle design on its cephalothorax. The spider gorgets illustrate a traditional story, common to many southeastern tribes from the Atlantic Coast to Missouri, about the water spider bringing fire to humanity.

About the California State Indian Museum:

The California State Indian Museum displays exhibits illustrating the cultures of the state's first inhabitants. California's prehistoric population, one of the largest and most diverse in the Western hemisphere, was made up of over 150 distinct tribal groups who spoke at least sixty-four different languages. California Indian population estimates, before the arrival of the first Europeans, were at least 500,000 people.

California Indian cultural items in the museum include basketry, beadwork, clothing and exhibits about the ongoing traditions of various California Indian tribes.  Descendents of the first Californians, tens of thousands of them, still live in California and still cherish and carry on their unique cultural heritage. Indigenous people have donated many photographs of family, friends and memorable times for use in the museum. A section of the museum features a hands-on area, where visitors can try their hand at using Indian tools, such as the pump drill, used for making holes in shell beads and other materials; the mortar and pestle and soap root brush, made from the soap root plant, all used for grinding acorns.

The California State Indian Museum is located in the downtown area of Sacramento at 26th and K Streets.

© Text and image: California State Indian Museum and Wikipedia

Buried Treasure TV series

TV SERIES REVIEW

Title: Buried Treasure

Year: 2011

Running time: 43 minutes each episode

Country: USA

Website: www.fox.com/buried-treasure

Plot summary:

The human drama of reality television is mixed with the excitement of revealing some valuable art and antiques on a new FOX-TV series hosted by identical twin brothers Leigh Keno and Leslie Keno. The two Americana experts debut in "Buried Treasure" on Aug. 24 at 8pm/7pm Central.

The duo expands upon the appraisal model from the popular 15-years-running "Antiques Roadshow" on PBS to the more intimate setting of private homes nationwide. They sleuth for worthy finds from basement to attic for people who are often down on their luck, facing money problems or illness.

"We have found treasures from all over the world, valuable and rare objects ranging from 1000 B.C., a Minoan bronze bowl with inscriptions that was buried under a pile of magazines," says Leigh Keno of the discoveries on the show. He continues, "... and a rare Egyptian tomb figure with the figure of Osiris, polychrome painted, that was just sitting in a dresser in a house that had been sort of falling...down."

For some participants in the series, the Keno brothers save the day by unearthing a windfall.

"Well, there’s a number of pieces in the six figures," Leslie reveals of their finds. "The amazing thing is that the family doesn’t know the value and doesn’t realize what they have, which is so exciting...."

But there are also disappointments. To help separate the real from the fake, in paintings to jewelry to antiquities and more, the Kenos bring along a high-tech lab, and sometimes consult "the world’s top experts in a specific area just to be absolutely sure," says Leigh.

Episodes wrap with advice from the Kenos on where to sell any valuables, if the owners are so inclined. The brothers say they offer different routes for the piece to achieve the best price, by  directing sales to dealers, auction houses, and collectors.

"It’s a treasure hunting show with real heart and feeling and emotion," says Leslie, "...we do get very involved with not only the owners, but their children and their heirs and sometimes their parents...these objects have sometimes really big emotional attachment with the family."

The Kenos brothers are well-known for their enthusiastic appearances on "Antiques Roadshow,"  and the former PBS series Find!, as well as their long-running careers in American antiques. Leigh Keno owns Keno Auctions in New York City and Leslie Keno is Senior Vice President and Director of American Furniture and Decorative Arts at Sotheby's.

The pair has reportedly facilitated more than $1 billion in sales of art, antiques and collectibles over the years.

© Text and image: FOX TV, ArtFixDaily

Webb’s Oceanic and African Arts Auction

Auction: Webb’s Oceanic and African Arts

Date: 8^th September 2011 18:00h (UTC/GMT +12 hours)

Preview: 1^st September 2001 17:30 - 19:30

Place: 18 Manukau Road, Newmarket, Auckland (New Zealand)

Contact:  ncampbell@webbs.co.nz

Webpage:  www.webbs.co.nz

Catalogue: www.webbs.co.nz/auction/oceanic-and-african-arts

Comments:

Webb’s is delighted to once again present an outstanding and substantial sale of art and artifacts from Africa and the Oceanic region. Maori and Pacific material has been consigned to us from collections across the globe, including a significant collection from Hawaii, offering a wonderful opportunity to access material not previously seen on the New Zealand market. A further consignment of African art and artifacts has also been released to us from the collection of prominent New York dealer Merton D. Simpson.

About Webb’s:

Established in 1976, Webb's is New Zealand's premier auction service. Located in Auckland, Webb's leads the market in the sale of fine art, jewellery, watches, decorative arts, rare books and fine wines. Webb's also holds regular specialist sales in areas such as modern and contemporary design, photography, Maori and Oceanic artifacts, important motorcycles. With more than twenty specialist staff Webb's level of expertise cannot be matched. Comprehensive Auckland, national and international marketing and appraisal services are provided.

© Photo and text: Webb’s

Tankil tusk armband from the Philippines

ARTIFACTS AND OBJECTS OF THE WORLD 

Name: Tankil armband 

Origin: Luzón Island, Philippines (Kankanay ethnic group) 

Museum: Museo Nacional de Antropología, Madrid (Spain) 

Material: wood, hair, boar’s tusks, bamboo

Dimensions: height=13 cm, diameter=10 cm

Reference code:  CE1285

Age: 19th century

Comments:

Boar's tusk bracelet used by men in the ceremonies of cutting heads, decorated with tufts of hair cut from a severed head. It was a traditional Filipino personal adornment common to various ethnic groups within the islands, worn as a symbol of status and social prestige.

Cutting heads was one of the most significant hallmarks of the groups in the Cordillera of Luzón (Philippines), whose importance in the past is reflected in their mythology. It was an essential part of religious ceremonies, but most importantly, it was the way to obtain power and prestige within the community, as well as to avenge the insults suffered by any member of it. The continuation of this practice was due to the belief that a human head was the most valuable gift that could be done to the ancestors, as this would ensure a bountiful harvest and fertility of domestic animals.

The heads were taken from the enemies, and were placed in posts in the center of the villages where a ceremony was held with special dances. Boar tusks bracelets, called tankil were used only by men in these ceremonies.

© Photos and text: Museo Nacional de Antropología, Madrid (Spain)

Haida Ivory Raven Face

ARTIFACTS AND OBJECTS OF THE WORLD

Name: Haida Ivory Raven Face

Origin: Haida people, Queen Charlotte Islands, British Columbia (Canada)

Museum: Dallas Museum of Art, Dallas, Texas (USA)

Material: Walrus ivory and shell inlay

Reference code: 1977.29.McD

Age: mid-19th century

Comments:

The raven is a ubiquitous figure in the art and mythology of the cultures of the Northwest Coast. Prominent among the legends associated with him is the Box of Daylight, which Raven opened at the beginning of time, thereby flooding the skies forever with sunlight and, in the process, scorching his white feathers black.

While the specific purpose of this handsome carving of walrus ivory remains unclear - it might be a knife handle or perhaps a cup - it most certainly would have conferred considerable esteem upon its owner. Datable on stylistic grounds to the mid-nineteenth century, it is compositionally related to spoons fashioned from horn and to figures carved from argillite.

Both these materials were readily available to the Haida people of the Queen Charlotte Islands off the coast of British Columbia. The tusk of the walrus, however, had to come from Eskimo country several hundred miles to the north, presumably as an object of trade and through several intermediaries. Only then could it have come to the Haida master who, working with tools crafted by native hands from European metal, transformed it into an image of radiant beauty.

© Photos and text: Dallas Museum of Art 

Waist african pendant

ARTIFACTS AND OBJECTS 

Name: Waist african pendant 

Origin: Benin (Edo people) (Africa) 

Museum: Dallas Museum of Art, Dallas, Texas (USA) 

Material: ivory 

Reference code: 1994.201.McD 

Age: 18th century 

Comments: 

The central figure on this rare carved ivory pendant is distinguished by his placement, his slightly larger size and the large bead at the center of his chest. He is the hereditary king, or oba, of Benin and wears the bead of kingship-an imported red coral, jasper, or agate bead. This bead, a significant emblem of his rank, and the textured bars on the figure's helmet and collar represent the oba's netted red coral and agate garment. Panels on either side of his tunic are shaped like mudfish with filaments hanging from their mouths.

Around his waist, three pendants with heads of Portuguese soldiers or officials demonstrate how the pendant was worn. The oba, legs adorned with coral beads, stands on a human head with mudfish issuing from its nostrils. Two high priests, Osa and Osuan, each wearing a waist pendant depicting crocodiles and standing on a frog, flank the oba. These priests, as well as other court officials or sons of the oba, traditionally support the oba during his coronation and ceremonies of importance. This grouping of the triad recalls an eyewitness account of Oba Overami's appearance when he surrendered to the British on August 5, 1897: "He was supported in the usual way by chosen men holding him up by each arm." The pendant's rich and complex iconography can be interpreted from Edo oral tradition, recorded history in European sources, and kingship practice that endures today.

The gesture of support, for example, is not meant to suggest the king is infirm, but symbolizes the delicate balance that must be maintained between the oba's authority and the Edo peoples' willingness to submit to his authority. The mudfish and the frogs are associated with the realm of Olokun, the god of wealth and all waters (streams, rivers, seas, oceans, and the divine) and a source of the oba's supernatural powers. The initial source of Benin's great wealth came from the sea: the first group of Portuguese explorers and traders must have seemed to emerge from Olokun's realm.

An ancient belief asserts the oba's legs were so heavily charged that damp soil would lose fertility if touched by his feet. Thus, the oba's power is also manifested in his legs and feet, which are sometimes depicted as mudfish in art. Mudfish are liminal creatures that can survive on land as well as in water. While some varieties are benign and considered a delicacy, and therefore symbolize feasting and prosperity, others are dangerous and can electrocute their adversaries. Benin artists do not differentiate the various types of mudfish in visual art. Frogs are considered mysterious creatures because they seem to change species from tadpole to frog. These creatures present a paradox like the oba, who commands and must keep two worlds, that of the sea and the land, in harmony. The Emobo ceremony, an extant kingship ritual that commemorates the establishment of Benin as the capital of the kingdom, requires an oba to wear waist pendants. According to oral tradition, Esigie, a sixteenth-century prince and founder of the present dynasty, competed with his half-brother Arhuanran, who ruled the province of Udo and was heir apparent to the throne. After the death of their father, Esigie challenged Arhuanran's ascent. He succeeded with the help of Edo chiefs, Portuguese allies, and most importantly, his mother Idia. Defeated, Arhuanran cursed the bead of kingship. Oba Esigie subsequently went insane when he wore the bead. The story, however, has a happy ending: Idia used her incredible spiritual powers to break the curse and thereby restore her son's sanity. Today he is considered one of Benin's most successful rulers. The Emobo ceremony also expels negative spirits from the capital city. According to some accounts, those negative spirits have been sent to Udo.

This rare ivory pendant is one of five that were taken by Private William Kelland of the British Royal Marines as souvenirs of the British Punitive Expedition in 1897. The other pendant plaques are in the collections of the Buffalo Museum of Science, the Nigerian National Museum, Lagos, and the National Museum of Scotland, Edinburgh.

© Photos and text: Dallas Museum of Art 

Tatanua mask

Name: Tatanua mask

Origin: Oceania

Museum: Dallas Museum of Art, Dallas, Texas (USA)

Materials: wood, paint, opercula, shell, and cloth

Reference code: 1975.8

Age: early 20th century

Comments:

These men's dance masks, and the line dance in which they appear, are called tatanua, which may derive from the word tanua (spirit or soul). They are associated with the malagan festival in Papua New Guinea. So great is the power of each mask that the dancer must remain absolutely quiet once it is lowered over his head. A supporting male chorus provides a voice for the masks. As part of the malagan celebration, the tatanua dance represents the renewed vitality of the living and their capabilities to survive and prosper. The masked dancers announce a return to order following the chaos in the village associated with death.

Though the masks are superficially similar in appearance, there are many variations reflecting the wide range of associations and meanings which they have.

The upper part consists of a cane framework held together with string and covered with barkcloth, or in later examples, European textiles. It is decorated to represent the hairstyle worn by young men as a mark of bereavement, in which the hair was partially shaved and coated with lime. Tatanua masks are decorated differently on each side of the crest, using feathers, wool, shells, short wooden sticks or seeds. One side is often

coated with lime. The crest is of yellow or reddish brown fibre. The face, normally carved from lime wood (Alstonia), is decorated with black, white and reddish brown pigment in an asymmetric design. Sometimes blue pigment is used to enhance the whiteness of washing. The straight mouth is usually open, showing teeth.

The tatanua mask is worn by men in ceremonies to honour the dead. In 1907 Richard Parkinson published a description of a ceremony that he witnessed on a visit to New Ireland. The masked dancers performed, accompanied by drumming, wearing garlands of leaves and a leaf garment covering the lower body. Brenda Clay describes her observations of a performance by tatanua dancers in 1979. Men prepared the masks and the performance away from women. The masks are preserved between performances, to be rented out by one of the few remaining skilled carvers.

There are several categories of masks used in the malagan. The tatanua mask represents the spirits of the dead who are believed to attend the ceremonies and participate in the dances. Villagers clearly associated the different tatanua masks with specific deceased relatives and believed the mask wearers to be the reappearance of the spirit of that individual. In the past the tatanua ceremony was an exclusive male ritual complex and took place in the men's enclosure.

Some of the tatanuas are displays of the “ideal male”, that is, male power and capabilities; others are “portraits” of specific deceased. The placement of the shell eyes is an occasion for ceremony and it is at this moment that the spirit is believed to enter the mask. Tatanua dancers performed line dances rather than the individual dances that were typical for other kinds of masked dancers. Their movements imitated birds and/or snakes. The dancer, who wore a short grass costume, re-enacted the activities of an ancestor, sometimes in a comic manner. The crest represents the style of hair once worn by male ancestors. The tatanuas were not destroyed after the malagan festival, unlike most of the other art objects created for this ceremonial display.

While the individual elements that make up a particular piece can be identified, the meaning of the piece as a whole changes when the various elements are combined. The interpretation of the person who commissioned the piece may vary from that of other viewers and, indeed, there can be as many interpretations of the piece as there

are viewers. The elements used in each piece were chosen by the person who commissioned the piece and were dictated by his knowledge of the relative to be commemorated.

© Photos and text: Dallas Museum of Art and British Museum, Utah Museum of Fine Arts

Birdskin parka

ARTIFACTS AND OBJECTS

Name: Birdskin parka (annuraq)

Origin: Smith Sound, Greenland

Museum: British Museum, London (UK)

Materials: skins of auks

Reference code: AOA 1899-419

Age: end of 19th century

Comments:

This birdskin parka was made by the Inughuit of the Smith Sound area in northern Greenland. It was collected by the American explorer Robert Peary (1856-1920), who visited the area several times between 1891 and 1909 in preparation for his expeditions to the North Pole.

The Inughuit often used the skins of auks or little auks to make parkas. The skins are sewn together into belts, and the belts are then sewn into poncho-like garments. The feather-side of the skin would have been turned to the inside. Birdskin parkas were worn directly on the body as inner parkas by men, women and children, usually under an outer parka of sealskin. After 1910, when Knud Rasmussen opened his trading-post in Thule, birdskin parkas were quickly replaced by European underwear bought in the store.

Birdskin clothes are light, warm and waterproof, but they tear easily. On arrival in the Department of Conservation of the British Museum, the skin of the parka was torn in several places. With ageing, the feathers had become less securely attached to the skin and were easily dislodged. The tears were repaired by adhering patches of a Japanese tissue paper coloured to match, or where possible with goldbeaters' skin, a transparent membrane prepared from ox intestine, which more closely matches the appearance of the skin. The parka was then gently padded with acid-free tissue paper. However, the parka remains fragile, and cannot be exhibited, because this might lead to further damage and loss of feathers.

© Photos and text: British Museum

Phaa sin tubular skirt from Laos

ARTIFACTS AND OBJECTS OF THE WORLD 

Name: Phaa sin (tubular skirt) from Laos 

Origin: Tai Daeng People, Laos 

Museum: Dallas Museum of Art 

Material: cotton and silk 

Dimensions: overall: 31x27 ¼ in (78x69 cm)

Reference code:  1991.361

Age: early 20^th century

Comments:

This classic style of Laotian skirt is unusual for its use of both ikat-patterned cotton and ikat-patterned silk in the same textile, thereby featuring special dyeing properties of two fibers. The vertical bands with white designs on a dark blue ground are cotton, indicating cotton's ability to absorb indigo, a plant-derived dye. The red-ground bands are silk, vividly dyed with lac, a dye obtained from scale insects. Separating the ikat-patterned bands are areas of geometric motifs in low relief, shaped by supplementary, or extra, wefts inserted during the weaving process. The ikat designs of the skirt depict a stylized serpent, the nak, a river dragon or serpent-like mythical creature that had protective connotations. This creature reminds us of the aso, a mythical fusion of dragon and dog in the art of Borneo, which also signifies protection.

© Text and image: www.dallasmuseumofart.org

Tulangan sirimanua from Indonesia

ARTIFACTS AND OBJECTS OF THE WORLD 

Name: Tulangan sirimanua, wall panel with figure of a slain shaman 

Origin: Taileleu Village (Indonesia) 

Museum: Dallas Museum of Art

Material: wood, paint, shell, inlay, cloth

Dimensions: height: 69 ¼ in (176 cm)

Reference code:  1999.3

Age: circa 1900

Comments:

A successful headhunt was celebrated by festivities in the longhouse (uma) and by the carving of an image of the slain victim, which was set into the rear wall of the first interior room, facing the entrance. Visitors to the uma would see the memorial figure as proof of the courage and strength of its inhabitants. This wall panel is one of those memorial figures. The head of the figure is small, but the shell inlay that survives in his right eye suggests a piercing gaze. His splayed hands are enormous. Linear painting on his arms, legs, and torso represent tattoos, which make the body attractive for the soul. The barkcloth loincloth tied about his waist represents what was once the basic garment for men of the area. The washes of red across the neck and along the torso suggest that the figure may be otherworldly. His tattoos are those of people from the northern part of Siberut, where Taileleu people went headhunting. The feathery headdress identifies the figure as a kerei, or shaman. The kerei can see and hear souls, ancestors, and spirits; he can also communicate with them.

© Text and image: www.dallasmuseumofart.org

The Arts of Africa

Title: The Arts of Africa at the Dallas Museum of Art

Author: Roslyn A. Walker

Year of publication: 2010

Paperback: 304 pages

Language: English

Synopsis:

Dr. Roslyn Adele Walker id the Senior Curator for The Arts of Africa, the Pacific, and the Americas and The Margaret McDermott Curator of African Art at the Dallas Museum of Art. Dr. Walker is also the author of the newly published book The Arts of Africa, the first catalogue dedicated to exploring the Museum’s collection of nearly two thousand African objects—acclaimed as one of the top five of its kind in the United States. Commemorating the 40th anniversary of the collection, which began with a gift of more than two hundred objects from DMA benefactors Eugene and Margaret McDermott, the catalogue draws from both historical sources and contemporary research to examine over one hundred figures, masks, and other works of art representing fifty-two cultures, from Morocco to South Africa.

This beautifully illustrated book showcases 110 objects from the Dallas Museum of Art’s world-renowned African collection. In contrast to Western “art for art’s sake,” tradition-based African art served as an agent of religion, social stability, or social control. Chosen both for their visual appeal and their compelling histories and cultural significance, the works of art are presented under the themes of leadership and status; the cycle of life; decorative arts; and influences (imported and exported). Also included are many fascinating photographs that show the context in which these objects were originally used.

Indonesian mouth mask

ARTIFACTS AND OBJECTS OF THE WORLD 

Name: Mouth mask depicting the head of a bird 

Origin: Leti Island, Indonesia 

Museum: Dallas Museum of Art 

Material: wood, boar tusks, clam shell, mother-of-pearl, buffalo horn, resinous material, pigment 

Dimensions: overall: 5 ½ x 6 3/8 x 5 ¾ in (14x16x14 cm) 

Reference code:  1997.141.McD

Age: 19^th century

Comments:

On the island of Leti, ritual dances featured a small sculpture representing the head of an animal. The dancer held the masklike object in his mouth by the tab extending from the back of the head. Only three examples are known to have survived, two masks in European museum collections, which represent pigs, and this Dallas mask, which depicts a bird, perhaps a pigeon or rooster. The imagination of the sculptor is apparent here in the improbable use of boars’ tusks to create the white feathers that rise above the head and encircle the face. The mouth masks are associated with a distinctive fertility ritual called porka, the goals of which were increase and abundance among human beings, animals, and plants as well as the renewal of creation. In its original form, the ritual cycle began with a headhunting raid and accorded sexual freedom to unmarried people during certain phases. Formerly celebrated at seven-year intervals and times of disaster, the porka ritual survived, with changes, during the 20th century as a New Year’s celebration. It is thought that the last complete ritual was performed between 1850 and 1860.

© Text and image: www.dallasmuseumofart.org

Solomon Islands Amulet

Name: Woven cane amulet

Origin: Santa Isabel Island, Solomon Islands, Melanesia, Oceania;

Museum: Pitt Rivers Museum, Oxford (UK)

Materials: cane, shells, animal bristles

Reference code: PRM 1904.29.

Comments:

This is a narrow bag of woven cane, with four shell rings placed around the middle, and a plait of pig’s bristles tied to the looped end.

It contains the relics of the maker’s ancestors, and was probably used with a magical spell intended to cause the death of an enemy. The Solomon Islanders held their ancestors in great reverence, and also believed very strongly in magic. Both their magical beliefs and their religious system were based on the concept of mana, which has been defined by Starzecka and Cranstone as ‘Supernatural power which can be present in varying degree in man and objects but always derives from spirits. It is associated with anything ... outside the natural order of things: exceptional success in business or talent for carving are caused by mana, and an unusually shaped stone has mana’ (Starzecka and Cranstone 1974: 13).

Amulets and charms in the Pitt Rivers Museum

The Pitt Rivers Museum has almost 6,000 amulets and charms in its collections; though not all of them are on display. They have been collected from all over the world, including England, and demonstrate the wide array of methods for using magic employed by different cultures.

An amulet is defined by the Oxford English Dictionary as: ‘Anything worn about the person as a charm preventative against evil, mischief, disease, witchcraft, etc.’ The definition of charm is very similar: ‘Anything worn about the person to avert evil or ensure prosperity’, though a charm may also be a spell or incantation believed to have a magical power.

Some of the objects on display are technically not amulets or charms but objects that were used in a ritual or instilled with a supernatural power. Some have been taken directly from the natural environment, and assigned a magical function by a single person, while others have been carved or painted to create an object with a meaning that would be recognised by most members of the culture.

The underlying theme that unites all amulets and charms is that the people who created and used them believed in them; almost any object may become a charm or an amulet, so long as someone believes it has the power to affect or alter the world around them.

Some amulets and charms are examples of ‘sympathetic magic’, which generally means that the appearance of an object resembles, in some way, the cure or protection it is believed to offer.

Unlike some of the objects on display in this Museum, amulets and charms are still widely used in many cultures today. You may have an object yourself that you trust will bring you luck! The amulets and charms on display at the Pitt Rivers Museum are material evidence of the hopes and beliefs that are shared by all of humankind.

© Photos and text: The Pitt Rivers Museum

Ki‘i Hulu Manu

Name: Ki‘i Hulu Manu

Origin: Hawaii

Museum: The Bishop Museum, Honolulu, Hawaii (USA)

Materials: wood and bird feathers

Comments:

Feathered image of Kūkā‘ilimoku (Kū the land grabber), war god of Hawai‘i island.

The early Polynesians who came to the islands of Hawai‘i eventually created full, and often distinct, communities on each island. While there was contact, interaction and exchange between the islands, as a general rule, political control was at the moku (large land division within an island), or sometimes island, level. During the eighteenth century however, one of the most renowned kāula (prophet, seer) from Māui predicted the coming of one who would bring all of the islands under his rule; who would bring peace through unification. During this era, in the court of Kalani‘ōpu‘u was a young boy named Kamehameha. He was a strong and brave youth and was soon assigned to the renowned warrior Kekūhaupi‘o to train in the arts of battle. He was also assigned kāhuna to teach him the ways of the gods.

The powerful god Kūkā‘ilimoku (Kū-snatcher of islands) was one important path to power of the ali‘i nui at this time. Prior to his death, Kalani‘ōpu‘u bequeathed care of his lands to his son Kīwala‘ō, but significantly, left this god of war and politics to Kamehameha. Kamehameha and his kāhuna cared for this god with the utmost austerity and were rewarded with great success in battle. After a series of battles, Kīwala‘ō was killed at Ke‘ei and eventually control of Hawai‘i Island came to Kamehameha. Kamehameha carried his efforts at unification on to Māui and defeated the warriors under Kalanikūpule at the famous battle of ‘Iao. He was not able to take Māui at the time however, as he was called to return home to put down an uprising there.

After several unsuccessful battles with his brother Keoua Kuahu‘ula, Kamehameha took a reprieve from warfare and sought the advice of his kahuna Kapoukahi. This kahuna advised Kamehameha to build a great house for his god Kūkā‘ilimoku. This act would ensure his ultimate victory over all the islands. The entire district was called forth and labored to build the massive Pu‘ukoholā heiau at Kohalā. Upon completion this intense structure stood approx. 200 feet by 100 feet and commanded awe from all who saw it. The structure however, and the god it housed, lacked one thing, an appropriate sacrifice. Kamehameha called his brother Keoua to the heiau and indeed Keoua complied. He was killed on arrival, laid upon the alter, and the dedication was complete. Kamehameha had earned the support of Kūkā‘ilimoku.

With the full power of his war god behind him, Kamehameha launched his massive Peleleu fleet of warships. Upon landing on Māui the ships were said to cover the beaches from Launiupoko to Mala. Kamehameha continued on to Moloka‘i and then launched his decisive battle against Kalanikūpule at O‘ahu. After defeat at Nu‘uanu, Kalanikūpule was later taken and offered in sacrifice to Kūkā‘ilimoku. With only Kaua‘i remaining not under his rule, Kamehameha again launched his fleet. This attempt would be unsuccessful, as a great storm would sink much of the fleet. Later, after a meeting of the two great ali‘i nui, an agreement was made to allow Kaumuali‘i to rule over Kaua‘i until his death at which time Kaua‘i too would be given over to Kamehameha. With this Kamehameha had fulfilled the prophecy and created the Kingdom of Hawai‘i, over which peace would rule for most of the next century.

© Photos and text: www.hawaiialive.org

Ossetia ornamented bowl

Name: Ornamented bowl

Origin: Ossets, North Ossetia, Russia

Date: 20th century

Museum: The Russian Museum of Ethnology

Materials: wood

Comments:

Hospitality is one of the brightest features of the culture of the peoples of the North Caucasus. Guest was offered the best that was in the house, the attention of the hosts was concentrated on him, he was surrounded by the cordial atmosphere. The foremost duty of the host was the providing of the safety of the guest and his belongings. To protect the guest and to help him was at the responsibility of the host even if the guest and the host at that time were enemies. In Circassia there was one very popular story telling about the knight who found his shelter in the family the member of which he had once killed. The knight in his turn could render a service to the enemy. If the guest got killed or was insulted, relatives of the host family and villagers were responsible for this and had to take revenge on the offender.

This custom goes deep into the history and following the historical facts it shouldn't be described only in "sweet" words. Hospitality is the direct consequence of the severe way of life of the mountain inhabitants when a man had to overcome difficulties connected with the climate conditions and with the constant defiance against enemies. That is why it was natural for people living in the mountains to count on relatives and neighbors. However, the guest was under the patronage of the host only during the time when he was living in his house. In the past, the hospitality was of small duration; as the proverb says: guest in a house - three days he's a guest, on the forth - he's a younger brother.

One shouldn't ask the guest where he came from and why. In the guest room guest stayed in a company of the most respected man in the family, and in this case all people present in the room had to stand. Even if the host was very busy, he had to be with the guest. Host and his familiars tried to satisfy any guest's wish and that requested from him response modesty. Guest was offered the best food and if he stayed over the night a sheep was killed even despite the fact that there was fresh meat in the house. Before his departure, guest was given hot food including, for example, pies which Ossets served with beer. Guest was expected to be modest and able to keep up the conversation.

The Adygh peoples traditionally built up special houses for the guests beyond the territory of the homestead. Sometimes around the guest house the look of the homestead was recreated. It was impolite for the guest to enter the homestead.

In the medieval Ossetia large and influential families as well as the nobles built castles which consisted of house-fortress, farm buildings and arming towers. Tower had three floors, the top floor was left for the guests. In the modern Osset house when it is possible a special room is given to the guests. At the countryside a separate building could be designed for the guests. The guest room was always decorated with the best things. Its interior included prayer rugs, armour, musical instruments.

© Photos and text: www.eng.ethnomuseum.ru

Wayang kulit shadow puppet

Name: Wayang kulit shadow puppet

Origin: Bali, Indonesia

Date: 20th century

Museum: Wayang Museum, Jl. Pintu Besar Utara No. 27, West Jakarta, Indonesia

Materials: bovine leather, horn and bamboo

Comments:

Wayang is a theatrical performance employing puppets or human dancer. The puppet could be made of leather or wood.

Wayang is an Indonesian word for theatre (literally "shadow"). When the term is used to refer to kinds of puppet theatre, sometimes the puppet itself is referred to as wayang. Performances of shadow puppet theatre are accompanied by gamelan in Java, and by "gender wayang" in Bali.

UNESCO designated Wayang Kulit, a shadow puppet theatre and the best known of the Indonesian wayang, as a Masterpiece of Oral and Intangible Heritage of Humanity on 7 November 2003. In return of the acknowledgment, UNESCO demanded Indonesia to preserve their heritage.

History of the Wayang Kulit:

Wayang is a generic term denoting traditional theatre in Indonesia. There is no evidence that wayang existed before Hinduism came to Southeast Asia sometime in the first century CE brought in by Indian traders. However, there very well may have been indigenous storytelling traditions that had a profound impact on the development of the traditional puppet theatre. The first record of a wayang performance is from an inscription dated 930 CE which says "si Galigi mawayang," or "Sir Galigi played wayang". From that time till today it seems certain features of traditional puppet theatre have remained. Galigi was an itinerant performer who was requested to perform for a special royal occasion. At that event he performed a story about the hero Bhima from the Mahabharata

Wayang Kulit is a unique form of theatre employing light and shadow. The puppets are crafted from buffalo hide and mounted on bamboo sticks. When held up behind a piece of white cloth, with an electric bulb or an oil lamp as the light source, shadows are cast on the screen.

Wayang Kulit plays are invariably based on romantic tales, especially adaptations of the classic Indian epics, "The Mahabarata" and "The Ramayana". Some of the plays are also based on local happenings (current issues) or other local secular stories. It is up to the conductor or "Tok Dalang" to decide his direction.

The Dalang is the genius behind the entire performance. It is he who sits behind the screen and narrates the story. With a traditional orchestra in the background to provide a resonant melody and its conventional rhythm, the Dalang modulates his voice to create suspense thus heightening the drama. Invariably, the play climaxes with the triumph of good over evil.

Hinduism arrived in Indonesia from India even before the Christian era, and was slowly adopted as the local belief system. Sanskrit became the literary and court language of Java and later of Bali. The Hindus changed the Wayang (as did the Muslims, later) to spread their religion, mostly by stories from the Mahabharata or the Ramayana. Later this mixture of religion and wayang play was praised as harmony between Hinduism and traditional Indonesian culture. On Java, the western part of Sumatra and some smaller islands traditionalists continued to play the old stories for some time, but the influence of Hinduism prevailed and the traditional stories either fell into oblivion or were integrated into the Hinduistic plays.

The figures of the wayang are also present in the paintings of that time, for example, the roof murals of the courtroom in Klungkung, Bali. They are still present in traditional Balinese painting today.

When Islam began spreading in Indonesia, the display of God or gods in human form was prohibited, and thus this style of painting and shadow play was suppressed. King Raden Patah of Demak, Java, wanted to see the wayang in its traditional form, but failed to obtain permission from the Muslim religious leaders. As an alternative, the religious leaders converted the wayang golek into wayang purwa made from leather, and displayed only the shadow instead of the figures itself. Instead of the forbidden figures only their shadow picture was displayed, the birth of the wayang kulit.

The figures are painted, flat woodcarvings (a maximum of 5 to 15 mm thick -- barely half an inch) with movable arms. The head is solidly attached to the body. Wayang klitik can be used to perform puppet plays either during the day or at night. This type of wayang is relatively rare.

Wayang today is both the most ancient and most popular form of puppet theatre in the world. Hundreds of people will stay up all night long to watch the superstar performers, dalang, who command extravagant fees and are international celebrities. Some of the most famous dalang in recent history are Ki Nartosabdho, Ki Anom Suroto, Ki Asep Sunarya, Ki Sugino, and Ki Manteb Sudarsono.

About the Museum:

Wayang Museum is a museum which keeps collections of wayang from various territories in Indonesia and even from other countries. Wayang Museum Building was constructed at a former old church location, which built by VOC in 1640 with the name “de oude Hollandsche Kerk”. The church functioned as a house of worship for Dutch civil and military in Indonesia until 1732. In 1733 the church was renovated and the name was changed to be “de nieuwe Hollandsche Kerk”. The building existed until 1808, until an earthquake nearly destroyed it. On the location where the church previously stood, a building was constructed.

The collections of Wayang Museum are very various, in both small and big size. Wayang Museum collects Indonesian leather wayangs, like Kedu, Tejokusuman, Ngabean, Surakarta, Banyumas, Cirebon, Gedog, Sadat, Madia Krucil, Sasak, Kaper, Wahyu, Kijang Kencana, Ukur, Suluh, Klitik, and Beber. Wayang Museum has collections of scarce wayang as well like Intan wayang, Suket, Beber and Revolusi.  Besides, Wayang Museum also has some collections of wooden wayang like Catur, Cepak Cirebon, Kebumen, Pekalongan, Bandung, Gundala-Gundala from Tanah Karo, and Si Gale-Gale from Tanah Batak. There are collections of masks which were sourced from Cirebon, Bali, and Center Java. Other artifacts are also displayed in Wayang Museum, like gamelan, Blencong lamp, glass wayang, zinc wayang, and paintings. There’re some collections that sourced from abroad, some of them are from Kelantan, Malaysia, Suriname, France, Cambodia, and Thailand.

© Photos and text: Jakarta Wayang Museum